Rural communities experience various challenges, including having higher education options, regulating the workforce, access to capital and goods, and infrastructure development. Despite these challenges, what makes these communities unique is their ability to be resilient, considering their small population. A prime example of this is Gila County, located in eastern Arizona. This area includes a cluster of rural towns that have survived for a long time, 142 years! Amidst the rise and fall of the copper rush from the 1880s to the 1950s, as well as the development of U.S. 60 that bypassed multiple towns, Gila County prevailed. The health of this community is deeply connected to the current nonprofit sector. This county is home to a few churches, one private nonprofit school, a variety of public charities, a community hospital, and several volunteer organizations. In order to understand how Gila County nonprofits have been so successful, this study uses the Supply and Demand Theory to answer the central idea: how do leaders build resilient nonprofits? Using in-depth interviews and demographic data collection, this study reports on the views of rural nonprofit leaders with years of expertise. It answers four key questions: 1) How strongly do nonprofit leaders equate being resilient to the longevity of their organization? 2) How is funding currently used in rural nonprofits’ program development? 3) How is collaboration between community members and rural nonprofits necessary for success? 4) How does the organization currently use technology to further its mission? Through the lens of the Supply and Demand Theory, this study pinpoints how rural nonprofit leaders have utilized their resources to create an equilibrium between supply and demand. The results show that successful nonprofits showcase resilient practices through their current leadership. These findings expand upon current research on succession planning, funding resiliency, internal and external collaboration, and overall use of technology. By expanding on this knowledge, valuable information has been documented for both active and upcoming nonprofit leaders. Capturing the first-hand expertise of successful leaders in rural Arizona provides advice, inspiration, and hope for those to come.

After many decades of promoting sustainable tourism and development, the world faces the pressing issue of overtourism. Overtourism is viewed as the condition where the growth of visitor volume puts destinations’ capacity under pressure resulting in many negative impacts on the environment, economy, culture, and society. It causes many community residents to resent tourism development. Visitors are concerned about their travel experience in overcrowded places. Understanding overtourism is necessary for destination management. This dissertation includes three studies to: 1) review the phenomenon of overtourism; 2) examine the perceptions of local residents and test the relationship between their satisfaction with quality of life and level of support for tourism development in overtourism context; and 3) examine the management of stakeholder involvement in an evidence-based sustainable tourism plan that aims to address overtourism. Different research methods are employed in the three studies of the dissertation: a conceptual paper based on literature review; a concurrent triangulation approach using both quantitative and qualitative data collected from a survey with host community; and a case study involving analysis of documents related to a sustainable tourism plan and in-depth interviews with key informants who were involved in developing the plan. Several theoretical or conceptual frameworks are used to guide research, including those that consider the relationship between residents’ satisfaction with QOL and their support for tourism development, crowding theory, stress coping framework, place attachment, and a multi-stakeholder involvement management framework. Sedona, a destination that is concerned about overtourism, was chosen to be the research site for two of the studies. Study 1 reveals the complexity of overtourism and pinpoints important aspects and details (e.g., causes, impacts) that need to be considered while solving overtourism. Study 2 investigates impacts of overtourism on the quality of life of the host community and identifies different ways residents cope with the crowding condition. Residents’ support for tourism development is influenced by their satisfaction with quality of life and possibly by their attachment to destination. Study 3 documents a comprehensive mechanism to manage stakeholder involvement and utilization of evidence in a sustainable tourism plan. Findings are helpful for destination management.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been lauded as a sustainable framework through which corporations can contribute to society. However, in the wake of global social justice movements, society demands that corporations take a stance on social ills to contribute to a just society. The concept of corporate social justice (CSJ) has been introduced to frame such endeavors, although it has yet to be extensively applied to the tourism industry. Drawing on the conceptual framework of corporate social justice, this study explores how CSJ principles, including accountability, transparency, impact, and sustainability, inform the business operations of eco-rated tourism enterprises in Maasai Mara, Kenya. Ecotourism Kenya, the eco-rating agency, has guidelines for eco-rated facilities on community engagement and development that require these businesses to commit to: investing in people; implementing empowerment programs for local populations; and supporting community economic linkages. The study adopted a case study research design using Maasai Mara in Kenya as a site of inquiry. Guided by a constructivist epistemological lens, data was collected through semi-structured interviews with management officials operating the eco-rated tourism businesses and Maasai community members residing in the vicinity. Purposive sampling was used to select participants from eco-rated tourism businesses, whereas a combination of snowball and convenience sampling techniques was utilized in selecting key informants from the Maasai community. Accordingly, twelve participants from eco-rated businesses and eighteen Maasai community participants took part in this study. The findings indicated that eco-rated tourism businesses in Maasai Mara engaged with the tenets of CSJ, albeit in predominantly business-focused ways. Further findings also revealed other factors that seemed to influence the local community’s appreciation of the community empowerment initiatives by eco-rated businesses. These factors included: human-wildlife conflict, corrupt reserve land dealings, and exploitation of Maasai trade by some local tourism actors. Based on the findings, this study recommends that eco-rated tourism businesses in Maasai Mara enhance their engagement with the tenets of CSJ to reflect community-centered initiatives. Moreover, a keen reassessment of multi-stakeholder influences on the Maasai community’s full appreciation of benefits from eco-rated tourism businesses should be undertaken to propel further implementation of action-oriented solutions for the community.

Small island developing states (SIDS) are on the very frontlines of climate change (UNDP, 2017). Increasing attention on the unique social, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities SIDS face has led to the discussion of the overall resilience of this population. Specifically, post-disaster studies of resilience carried out on SIDS have pointed to social resilience and education as two primary indicators of the overall resilience of these vulnerable communities (Aldrich, 2012; Muttarak & Lutz, 2014); yet social aspects of resilience related to SIDS have been underexplored, in comparison to ecological and economic themes (Berkes & Ross, 2013). Thus, the purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the personal and professional lived-natural disaster experiences of SIDS residents who are educators in order to understand their role in building social resilience within their community. In-depth interviews were conducted with educators employed at public and private schools in the United States Virgin Islands. The findings indicate that residents who are educators conceptualized resilience according to the following themes and sub-themes: (1) Social Process which involves Social Recovery and Community Alliances to ‘bounce back’ to an undefined level of normalcy and (2) Embodied Identity which was described in terms of Community Personifications of resilience as a trait in general citizens and educators. Participants identified internal and external resources as influential in how residents responded to natural disasters, by so doing, significantly contributing to positive post-disaster outcomes; these resources are referred to in the literature as protective factors (Rutter, 1985). The findings also demonstrate that educators had both a personal and professional responsibility to help their community contend with disasters, and this outcome is best explicated through the concept of protective factors. The research findings are significant because they: (1) contribute to the limited body of literature on social resilience in small island developing states, (2) demonstrate the importance of subjective perspectives in the development of disaster preparedness and management strategies for climate-vulnerable island populations, and (3) indicate a need for future research to use terminology which acknowledges the many ways in which disaster-prone communities have historically demonstrated and/or embodied resilience.

Volunteering can lead to many positive outcomes on individuals in terms of social, psychological, and professional development. This study sought to understand the process and mindset of volunteers and how their experience affects attitudes towards environment. The purpose of this study is to analyze the attitude change of volunteers toward the environment, culture, and community after volunteering at a community of a background different than theirs. In this study, the volunteer setting is in Shonto, a Native American community in the Navajo Nation, Arizona. This study utilized a qualitative research approach. A total of 12 participants were interviewed in this study. All participants were members of Engineers Without Borders (EWB) at Arizona State University and have traveled to Shonto. Questions were asked to participants about their experiences with EWB and their volunteering experiences in Shonto. The main findings were categorized into four themes: 1) motivations; 2) preconceived perceptions and exposure; 3) collaboration and connection; and 4) commonality and reflection. The findings can be described as a process that participants go through in their entire volunteering experience. The first two themes occur before individuals volunteer and the last two themes occur after. First, individuals develop certain motivations to volunteer. Then, the preconceived perceptions of individuals were analyzed, and it was presumed that these perceptions were a result of their upbringing and exposure, or lack thereof, to the community they volunteer at. The last two themes occur after the individuals have volunteered. Individuals are able to collaborate and form a connection with the community, which influences their awareness and their ability to reflect on their experiences. These last two themes are important because they indicate the change of perceptions that volunteers perceive. These findings connect the motivations that volunteers have all the way to their attitude changes after volunteering. Further, findings demonstrate that the preconceived perceptions are influenced by an individual’s upbringing or exposure, but these misconceptions are changed after volunteering experience, which supports contact theory. Through these findings the study contributes to the existing literature on voluntourism. This study is applicable to organizations and tour operators who offer volunteer tourism programs and work with communities of different backgrounds. It can provide individuals an insight to other volunteering experiences.

The emergence of social media in concert with improved camera and cell phone technologies has helped usher in an age of unprecedented visual communication which has radically changed the tourism industry worldwide. Serving as an important pillar of tourism and leisure studies, the concept of the tourist gaze has been left relatively unexamined within the context of this new visual world and more specifically image based social media. This phenomenological inquiry sought to explore how image based social media impacts the concept of the tourist gaze and furthermore to discover how the democratization of the gaze in concert with specific features of image based social media applications impacts the hermeneutic circle of the tourist gaze. This in-depth analysis of the user experience within the context of travel consisted of 19 semi-structured photo elicitation interviews and incorporated 57 participant generated photos. Six salient themes emerged from the study of this phenomenon; 1) sphere of influence, 2) exchange of information, 3) connections manifested, 4) impression management and content curation, 5) replicated travel photography, and 6) expectations. Analysis of these themes in conjunction with examples from the lived user experience demonstrate that the tourist gaze is being accelerated and expanded by image based social media in a rapid manner. Furthermore, democratization of the gaze as enabled by technological developments and specialized social media platforms is actively shifting the power role away from a small number of mass media influencers towards a larger number of branded individuals and social media influencers. Results of this inquiry support the theoretical assertions that the tourist gaze adapts to social and technological developments and demonstrates that the concept of the tourist gaze is increasingly important within tourism studies. Practical implications regarding the prevalence of real-time information, site visitation, and “taking only pictures” as sustainable touristic behavior are discussed.

This study aims to identify the self-reported sustainability goals, practices, and results of the five largest hotel companies that are headquartered in the United States through a comprehensive content analysis of each of their websites. The five companies included in the study are Best Western International, Wyndham Hotels and Resorts, Choice Hotels International, Hilton Worldwide, and Marriott International. The main focus centered on the qualitative information they shared about their goals and implemented practices across the hotels owned and operated by each company. In addition, the published qualitative data was analyzed to look at the reported results of their implemented practices. The results showed a large variety in the level of information that was shared by each of the five companies.
Information was examined using thirteen indicators of sustainability. Eight indicators were chosen that represented environmental sustainability, plus five indicators that represent social and economic sustainability. Based on the information analyzed, each company received a score for each indicator according to the level of information disclosed. This created a sustainability scorecard, with Marriott and Hilton scoring the highest, Wyndham and Best Western scoring the lowest, and Choice Hotels falling in the middle .In summary, it was determined that Hilton is reporting at the highest level, based on the measured indicators in addition to receiving external assurance on their disclosed results from implemented practices, The other four companies have further steps they should take to better communicate their sustainable practices and overall commitment to sustainability.

Throughout history, terrorism has had major effects on tourists and tourism destinations that are targeted. When terrorists execute an attack in order to communicate a message, resulting impacts go far beyond lives lost. Included in these impacts is the fear that terror attacks leave on tourists, sometimes creating such an impression that tourists change travel plans as a result. Although there are many studies on destination image, risk perception, and decision-making, very few focus specifically on the millennial generation. Because millennials are changing the travel and tourism scene - as they now make up the largest percentage of the population \u2014 it is important for stakeholders in the tourism industry and DMOs to understand this shift and the implications that come with these changes. This study provides a qualitative analysis of millennials' views, attitudes, and beliefs regarding terror impacted tourist destinations. Specifically, it will explore how millennials develop their destination images, if millennials view international travel to be risky, and if millennials are willing to travel to terror impacted tourist destinations. Using focus group methodology, this study gathered data from students from a number of disciplines, genders, and travel experience, in order to understand the themes listed above. Analysis of the findings and implications for officials and DMOs follow, as well as a conclusion including limitations and recommendations for future studies.

Balancing conservation goals and needs of local residents is always challenging. While some believe protected areas are a safe paradise for wildlife, others suggest that it is shortsighted to ignore the social and economic challenges faced by people who live adjacent to protected areas when addressing conservation objectives. This dissertation explores the link between biodiversity conservation and environmental education programs (EEPs) administered to residents of buffer zones adjacent to three protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. Using surveys and interviews, this study examined 1) the influence of EEPs on attitudes of local people toward biodiversity conservation; 2) the influence of EEPs on conservation behavior; 3) the responses toward biodiversity conservation of local people residing in buffer zones who have received different levels of EEPs; and 4) the effect of EEPs on wildlife populations within adjacent protected areas. Local people who had participated in EEPs and attended school were more likely to express a positive attitude toward conservation goals than participants who had not participated in EEPs or had the opportunity to attend school. Participation in EEPs and level of education favored expressed behavior toward conservation goals, such as making contributions for conservation or supporting anti-poaching patrols. However, EEP participants and non-participants were equally likely to engage in activities that were at odds with positive conservation behavior, such as collecting fuel wood or killing wildlife to protect their farm or feed their families. A direct comparison of EEPs given by schools versus non-government organizations showed that EEPs were largely ineffective in promoting positive conservation attitudes and behaviors. Despite heavy poaching of charismatic species such as the greater one-horned rhinoceros or tiger over past decades, Nepal recently celebrated ‘zero poaching years’ in 2011 and 2013, largely due to increased anti-poaching enforcement. The relationship between EEPs and the decline in poaching is unclear, although local officials all claimed that EEPs played an important role. These results indicate that current administration of EEPs in Terai buffer zone communities is inadequate, while also providing evidence that properly administrated EEPs may become a valuable investment for these protected areas to achieve long-term success.

Because of its ability to harbor social values, norms, and beliefs, heritage has always been utilized as an ideological vehicle. One prominent example of politicizing heritage is Chinese red tourism, comprised of state-promoted tours to revolutionary memorial sites. It is expected to generate political, economic, and social benefits, particularly to reinforce the legitimate leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Statistics show that dramatic market growth in red tourism has occurred over the past decade. Yet it is still heavily driven by the government and thus whether long-term sustainability can be achieved is still questionable.

This dissertation explores the dynamics of red tourism from the perspective of a meaning-making process, where tourism discourses circulate among the processes of production, transmission, and consumption. The results reveal that higher-level government primarily assumes the leading role, whereas local government is largely excluded from strategy making processes and primarily responsible for implementation and operation. Some dissonance exists between higher and lower-level governments in their goals and involvement in red tourism development. Second, intermediaries are not altruistic and attempt to maximize their own benefits. While site interpreters may provide officially authorized narratives, their primary focus is hosting higher-up administrative visitors. On the contrary, tour guides are more customer-oriented, which may lead to officially undesirable interpretations. Third, driven by multiple motives, tourists have increasingly diverse attitudes towards red heritage and participate in various political and non-political activities. A considerable degree of congruence was found between tourists' participation, motivation, memories, and perception. Quantitative results indicate that the majority of tourists have learned about the political significance and/or content of red heritage, and developed more positive attitudes towards, and support for, the CCP and the government, to a certain extent.

This dissertation contributes to current research by adopting a systematic and emic perspective to explore the dynamics of red tourism. Several conceptual frameworks were developed inductively to describe the meaning-making process. Mixed methods were used to learn about tourists' consumption and perceptions of red heritage. Implications regarding enhancing the effectiveness of the meaning-making process, limitations of the study, and potential directions for future research are also discussed.