Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) are on the rise in the United States as an alternative to heavily-polluting Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEV). However, BEV greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are influenced by the electricity mix that the vehicle is produced in and operated in. This study uses Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to model the variability of BEV emissions across eleven different U.S. regions to determine which energy resources contribute the most to BEV lifetime emissions and in which lifecycle stages these emissions are most prevalent. Results suggest that BEV emissions are correlated with the share of highly emission-intensive resources (coal and residual oil), meaning that regions with the highest shares of coal and residual oil have the highest BEV emissions. With the Biden Administration’s aggressive BEV adoption goals and implementation of the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act, it is crucial that government resources are allocated to regions with higher emissions-intense resources to encourage the reduction of GHG emissions nationwide.

Global decarbonization requires a large-scale shift to sustainable energy sources. Innovation will be a key enabler of this global energy transition. Although the energy transition and innovation literatures overwhelmingly focus on the Global North, energy innovation is arguably even more important for the Global South because it can enable them to grow their energy demand and power their development with sustainable resources. This dissertation examines three aspects of energy innovation, focusing on Mexico, to advance the understanding of innovation systems and identify policy levers for accelerating energy innovation in emerging economies. The first project utilizes econometric models to assess patenting drivers for renewable energy (wind and solar) and enabling technologies (energy storage, high voltage direct current technologies, hydrogen technologies, and fuel cells) across 34 countries, including Mexico. The examination of enabling technologies is a particular contribution, since most research on energy innovation focuses on renewable generation technologies. This research finds that policies have differential effects on renewable technologies versus enabling technology, with innovation in enabling technologies lagging behind the deployment of renewable energy. Although renewable energy policies have some spillover effects on enabling technologies, this research suggests that targeted policy instruments for enabling technologies may be needed for global decarbonization. The second and third projects apply the innovation systems framework to understand energy innovation in Mexico. The second project analyzes the sectoral innovation system (SIS) for wind and solar technologies, using expert interviews to evaluate SIS structure and functions systemically. It finds that this innovation system is susceptible to changes in its structure, specifically institutional modifications, and encounters cultural and social aspects that reduce its performance. Further, it finds that non-government organizations and local governments are trying to support the SIS, but their efforts are hampered by low participation from the federal government. The third project studies the technology innovation system (TIS) for green hydrogen, an emerging industrial opportunity for Latin America. It evaluates this TIS's functionality and identifies 22 initiatives to improve its performance by interviewing green hydrogen experts in Mexico. The most important initiatives for strengthening the green hydrogen TIS are information campaigns, policy and regulation (taxes, subsidies, standards, and industrial policies), pilot or demonstration projects, and professional training. Overall, this dissertation contributes to the nexus of energy transition and innovation studies by advancing the understanding of energy innovation in an emerging economy.

This dissertation consists of three chapters that investigate the rapid adoption and complex implementation of city commitments to transition to 100% renewable energy (100RE). The first paper uses a two-stage, mixed methods approach to examine 100RE commitments across the US, combining a multivariate regression of demographic, institutional, and policy factors in adoption and six interview-based state case studies to discuss implementation. Adoption of this non-binding commitment progressed rapidly for city councils around the US. Results show that many cities passed 100RE commitments with no implementation plan and minimal understanding of implementation challenges. This analysis highlights that many cities will need new institutions and administrative capacities for successful implementation of these ambitious new policies. While many cities abandoned the commitment soon after adoption, collaboration allowed cities in a few states to break through and pursue implementation, examined further in the next two studies. The second paper is a qualitative case study examining policymaking for the Utah Community Renewable Energy Act. Process tracing methods are used to identify causal factors in enacting this legislation at the state level and complementary resolutions at the local level. This Act was passed through the leadership and financial backing of major cities and committed the investor-owned utility to fulfill any city 100RE resolutions passed through 2019. Finally, the third paper is a mixed-methods, descriptive case study of the benefits of Community Choice Aggregation (CCA) in California, which many cities are using to fulfill their 100RE commitments. Cities have adopted CCAs to increase their local voice in the energy process, while fulfilling climate and energy goals. Overall, this research shows that change in the investor-owned utility electricity system is in fact possible from the city scale, though many cities will need institutional innovation to implement these policies and achieve the change they desire. While cities with greater resources are better positioned to make an impact, smaller cities can collaborate to similarly influence the energy system. Communities are interested in lowering energy costs for customers where possible, but the central motivations in these cases were the pursuit of sustainability and increasing local voice in energy decision-making.

Intensified food production on large farms across the world has led to discussions on how to facilitate sustainable policies and practices to reduce nutrient pollution. In Chapter 1, I evaluated the co-variability of agricultural intensification, environmental degradation, and socio-economic indicators throughout the US to explore the potential evidence for the existence of sustainable intensification of agriculture in the US. I identified distinct agro-social-eco regions in the US that provide background for future regional studies of (sustainable intensification) SI in the US and beyond. I observed regions of moderate agricultural intensity and lower environmental degradation within the Great Plains, and regions of high agricultural intensity and higher environmental degradation throughout portions of the Midwest. Insights gained from this study can provide roadmaps for improved sustainable agricultural intensification within the US. In Chapter 2, the study summarized state regulations controlling a key nutrient input - the land application of biosolids from human wastewater treatment and manures from regulated animal feeding operations. Results indicate high variability of both manure and biosolids regulations among the states and stark differences in the regulation of land application of biosolids versus manures. This work can be used to identify opportunities for the strengthening of regulatory frameworks for managing these resources with minimal risk to the environment. In Chapter 3, I combined aspects of the previous chapters to understand the potential impact of specific CAFO land application regulations on nutrient pollution and assess if stricter regulations related to better environmental outcomes. I compared TN AND TP accumulated yields in surface waters across US States with state specific CAFO land application regulations across US Policy scenario tests revealed that more restrictions were associated with higher nutrient levels, indicating reactive policy making and delayed nonpoint source pollution responses. Overall, I found that fostering adaptive capacity and management within delineated agro-social-eco regions will likely facilitate sustainable food systems in the US.

Voluntary carbon offsets have become a key strategy of climate action efforts in the wake of worldwide anthropogenic climate change. The voluntary carbon market has grown rapidly as more institutions gain interest in contributing to decarbonization efforts to reach emissions reduction goals. The voluntary carbon offset market has introduced decarbonization solutions through various carbon removal, reduction, and avoidance projects that provide accessibility to climate solutions and credit affordability. However, the variability of projects and verification systems has led to some criticisms of the validity and accuracy of these solutions. This thesis assesses the current state of the voluntary carbon market policies and future opportunities and trajectories for this market.

Campus sustainability and the goal of reaching carbon neutrality have become a major trend among many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) globally, and many of them have taken public pledges to reach carbon neutrality as early as 2025. Despite this push and apparent eagerness to make campuses greener, the simple fact remains that HEIs account for very little of the global carbon footprint, and achieving carbon neutrality does very little to combat climate change in the grand scheme of things. It is widely held that HEIs seek to use carbon neutrality goals to demonstrate their strong commitment to sustainability and also to educate the next generation of thinkers and leaders in the hopes that graduates from these institutions apply these methods to higher levels of society thereby decarbonizing communities’ level by level. However, since carbon neutrality took center stage in campus sustainability goals, it is imperative to scrutinize and audit the past and current energy portfolio and analyze any meaningful changes to see their year-by-year progress and what methods have been most successful in reaching carbon neutrality. Not only that, but carbon neutrality seemingly means different things to different institutions. This research asks what is the role of a campus energy portfolio in terms of achieving carbon neutrality? Using the Institutional Analysis and Development framework, this research utilizes a case study analysis of Arizona State University which was one of the first universities in the United States to achieve carbon neutrality. The results of this study suggest that a campus energy portfolio is integral in understanding the role of carbon neutrality and that becoming carbon neutral is not always the “green standard” indicator many HEIs want others to think it is.

Space-based solar power is a renewable energy that is an alternative to all other forms of energy production. It takes on a new approach that pushes energy production off-world. Energy is harnessed and beamed down to a ground receiver via microwaves which is then sent to the grid and distributed to people across the country, and even globe. While the technology is new and still in the research and development stages, the ability is there. An economic analysis of the various technology yields levelized costs of energy comparable to current prices—under $.10/kWh. The markets and profits for this type of technology are abundant, ranging from commercial to military uses, with profits in the millions to billions of dollars. The environmental impacts are low compared to current energy production methods. The potential is great, the technology is close, and the future is near.

The algal fuel industry has existed since the 1980s without fully commercializing a product. Algal fuels are potentially viable replacements for fossil fuels due to their fast cultivation, high oil content, carbon dioxide sequestration during growth, and ability to be grown on non-arable land. For this thesis, six companies from 61 investigated were interviewed about their history with biofuels, technological changes they have gone through, and views for the future of the industry. All companies interviewed have moved away from fuel production largely due to high production costs and have moved primarily toward pharmaceuticals and animal feed production as well as wastewater treatment. While most do not plan to return to the biofuel industry in the near future, a return would likely require additional legislation, increased technological innovation, and coproduction of multiple products.

One of the greatest 21st century challenges is meeting the needs of a growing world population expected to increase 35% by 2050 given projected trends in diets, consumption and income. This in turn requires a 70-100% improvement on current production capability, even as the world is undergoing systemic climate pattern changes. This growth not only translates to higher demand for staple products, such as rice, wheat, and beans, but also creates demand for high-value products such as fresh fruits and vegetables (FVs), fueled by better economic conditions and a more health conscious consumer. In this case, it would seem that these trends would present opportunities for the economic development of environmentally well-suited regions to produce high-value products. Interestingly, many regions with production potential still exhibit a considerable gap between their current and ‘true’ maximum capability, especially in places where poverty is more common. Paradoxically, often high-value, horticultural products could be produced in these regions, if relatively small capital investments are made and proper marketing and distribution channels are created. The hypothesis is that small farmers within local agricultural systems are well positioned to take advantage of existing sustainable and profitable opportunities, specifically in high-value agricultural production. Unearthing these opportunities can entice investments in small farming development and help them enter the horticultural industry, thus expand the volume, variety and/or quality of products available for global consumption. In this dissertation, the objective is three-fold: (1) to demonstrate the hidden production potential that exist within local agricultural communities, (2) highlight the importance of supply chain modeling tools in the strategic design of local agricultural systems, and (3) demonstrate the application of optimization and machine learning techniques to strategize the implementation of protective agricultural technologies.

As part of this dissertation, a yield approximation method is developed and integrated with a mixed-integer program to estimate a region’s potential to produce non-perennial, vegetable items. This integration offers practical approximations that help decision-makers identify technologies needed to protect agricultural production, alter harvesting patterns to better match market behavior, and provide an analytical framework through which external investment entities can assess different production options.