Effortful control (EC), the regulatory component of temperament, has been found to predict various types of developmental outcomes (Eisenberg et al., 2016). Parenting behaviors have been found to predict and be predicted by children’s EC. However, existing findings on the magnitude and direction of the relations between parenting behaviors and children’s EC are not conclusive. Thus, to help resolve replication crisis and obtain more comprehensive findings from both published and unpublished studies and from diverse populations, I conducted a meta-analysis of the existing literature focusing on the direction of effects and magnitude of the longitudinal relations between parenting behavior and children’s EC. In this work, two research questions were addressed: 1) What were the magnitudes of the prediction from parenting behaviors to later children’s EC, and of the prediction from children’s EC to later parenting behaviors? 2) If heterogeneity existed among relations between parenting behaviors and children’s EC, was the variance explained by a) publication status, and b) other moderators, such as sample characteristics, types of EC and parenting behaviors, and aspects of study design? Using 2506 effect sizes from 271 studies, I found significant small to moderate effect sizes for both the overall parent effect and the overall child effect. Further, heterogeneity existed among both the parent and the child effects. Moderators including child age, race and ethnicity, types of parenting behaviors, types of children's EC, method similarity of parenting versus EC, and consistency of informants were found to explain the heterogeneity of parent effects. Moderators including child age, child gender, family structure (i.e., whether the household has two parents), parent gender, types of parenting behaviors, the measurement of EC, method similarity of parenting versus EC, and consistency of informants were found to explain the heterogeneity of child effects. Based on results of the overall effects, tests of publication bias, and moderation analyses, I provided theoretical and methodological implications and related future directions. Strength, limitations, and implications for intervention studies or practices of the present review were also discussed.

Within a positive youth development framework, Lerner and colleagues posited that youth and young adults are societal assets that support the pillars of democracy and incite community contribution through the development of individual character strengths. Strengths might include hope and civic attitudes, which researchers have linked to numerous positive outcomes; however, connections to civic behaviors are largely unknown. Developmentally, shifting identities, excitement about the future, and an introduction into formal citizenship within U.S. society characterize the emerging adulthood period. Emerging adulthood is also characterized by burgeoning relationships and service opportunities, particularly on college campuses. These factors make emerging adulthood a prime context in which to investigate the aims of the current study, which centered on investigation of the development of hope and civic attitudes, and how each contributed to civic engagement including interpersonal prosocial behavior, community volunteering, and political behaviors. Effortful control was hypothesized to play a role in relations as an intrapersonal factor that implicated relations between hope and civic attitudes and outcomes, and was therefore included as a moderator. Sample consisted of 217 emerging adults (~ 67% female, 58% White, 30% Pell-grant eligible, 19-20 years old) across three time points at a major university in the southwest U.S. from spring 2019 to spring 2020. Path models, structural equation models, and moderation analyses evidenced direct relations between hope and interpersonal prosocial behavior. Civic attitudes directly related to community volunteering and political engagement. Transactional relations between hope and civic engagement were not apparent. Similarly, moderation analyses showed no interactive effects between hope and civic attitudes and effortful control on study outcomes. Findings evidenced stability in hope and civic attitudes across early emerging adulthood and invited future work investigating the development of each in early adolescence and later emerging adulthood. Future interventions might prioritize the development of hope in efforts to increase interpersonal prosociality and civic attitudes to increase volunteering and political engagement among emerging adults, where civic engagement has been historically low. Overall, findings supported hope and civic attitudes as hallmarks of positive youth development with the potential to uniquely contribute to community enhancement in emerging adulthood.

Social-emotional competence (SEC), or effectiveness of social interaction, plays a central role in children’s health and well-being. The three goals of the current study were to describe the development of SEC during a preschool year; identify an appropriate factor structure for observed teacher-child interactions; and predict SEC growth from children’s characteristics (emotional competence, language risk, gender, and race/ethnicity), teacher-child relationship quality, and classroom characteristics (relational climate, observed teacher-child interaction quality, and curriculum). Children’s social competence, anger/aggression, effortful control, and emotion knowledge (N =822) was assessed at three time points during a preschool year via teachers’ reports and behavioral assessments. In the fall, teachers reported the quality of their relationships with children and teacher-child interactions were observed in classrooms. Aim 1 results indicated that children exhibited linear increases in effortful control and social competence and stability in anger/aggression, although social competence was the only construct where linear change varied among children. Due to a lack of longitudinal measurement invariance, growth in latent emotion knowledge could not be evaluated. Several gender and racial/ethnic differences were identified in SEC intercepts, but not the social competence slope. Language risk and impulsivity were consistent predictors of SEC intercepts. Aim 2 results indicated that teacher-child interaction quality was primarily unidimensional. Finally, results from aim 3 indicated that children’s emotional competence at the beginning of the year and classroom relational climate were predictive of growth in social competence. End-of-year social competence levels were associated with supportive teacher-child relationship quality (particularly among girls), high emotional competence, low language risk, and supportive classroom relational climate; girls had higher social competence than boys. Although not directly associated with social competence, observed teacher-child interaction quality was conditionally predictive of the social competence in the context of supportive teacher-child relationships. Further, when observed teacher-child interaction quality was average or high, children with low emotional competence exhibited greater growth in social competence than children with high emotional competence. The results inform our understanding of SEC development, the nature of teacher-child interactions in preschool classrooms serving high-risk populations, and potential school-based mechanisms for promoting social competence.

Prosocial behavior refers to voluntary acts done to benefit another. To date, there is little work examining children’s prosocial behavior toward outgroup members. Across several multi-method multi-informant data sets, I used various statistical methods (e.g., latent change score analysis, mediation and moderation analyses) to examine the predictors, correlates, and development of children’s prosocial behavior toward various outgroup members (e.g., gender, race). In Study 1, I examined the relation between preschoolers’ other-gender friendships and their prosocial behavior toward other-gender peers. Findings showed support for the hypothesis that cross-gender friendships are positively associated with children’s prosocial behavior toward other-gender peers over time. Further, children’s prosocial behavior toward other-gender peers positively predicted children’s later gender attitudes suggesting that fostering intergroup prosocial behavior could be a potentially effective solution to reduce intergroup prejudice. To capture the multifaceted nature of social identities, in Study 2, I examined children’s prosocial behavior toward various ingroup and outgroup members with the intention of exploring the degree of ingroup-ness and testing the transfer effect of intergroup contact. Findings showed that cross-gender friendships were positively predictive of school-age children’s prosocial behavior toward diverse others. Further, cross-race friendships are related to children’s diverse prosocial behavior indirectly through children’s race-based sympathy. Study 3 extended the previous two studies by testing both Intergroup Contact Theory and Social Identity Theory and taking into consideration the social identity of oneself (versus the targets of prosocial behavior). Specifically, I examined the central component of gender identity: children’s perceived same-gender similarity and other-gender similarity, as well as children’s same- and other-gender friendships. Results showed that only intergroup friendships, but not children’s gender identity, were related to children’s prosocial behavior toward same- and other-gender peers. In sum, this basic research has potential to shed light on ways to promote equity and inclusion across various social groups early in development.

This study examined relations between White parents’ color-blind and implicit racial attitudes and their children’s racial bias as well as moderation by diversity in children’s friends and caregivers, parental warmth, child age, and child sex. The sample included 190 White/Non-Hispanic children (46% female) between the ages of 5 and 9 years (M = 7.11 years, SD = .94) and their mothers (N = 184) and fathers (N = 154). Data used were parents’ reports of color-blind racial attitudes (Color-blind Racial Attitudes Scale; CoBRAS), parental warmth, and racial/ethnic diversity of children’s friendships and caregivers, direct assessment of primary parent implicit racial attitudes (Implicit Association Test; IAT), and direct assessment of children’s racial attitudes. Results supported hypothesized relations between parent racial attitudes and some child racial bias variables, especially under certain conditions. Specifically, both mothers’ and fathers’ color-blind racial attitudes were positively related to children’s social inclusion preference for White children over Black children and parents’ implicit White preference positively predicted child social inclusion racial bias, but only for younger children. Fathers’ color-blind racial attitudes positively predicted children’s social inclusion racial bias only when children’s pre-K caregivers were mostly White and were inversely related to children’s implicit White preference when children’s caregivers were more racially heterogeneous. Finally, parental warmth moderated relations such that, when mothers’ warmth was low, mother color-blind attitudes were negatively related to children’s racial bias in social distance preference and fathers’ color-blind attitudes positively predicted children’s social inclusion bias only when father warmth was low or average.

This two-study investigation examined the social behavior competencies of a sample of students ages 8 to 18 who identified themselves as either bullies or non-bullies based on ratings of items on a comprehensive behavior rating scale. Specifically, the purpose of Study 1 was to establish criteria using the Social Skills Improvement System – Student Rating Scale (SSIS-S) to identify students from a nationally representative standardization sample who displayed high frequencies of bullying behaviors. The social behavior ratings for these self-identified bullies were then compared with all other students in the national sample and analyzed to determine differences among various domains of social skills and problem behaviors. In Study 2, the same students’ social behaviors were rated by adult informants to determine if there was added value in including parents and teachers in the assessment of the self-identified bullies. Finally, the extent of concurrent agreement was examined for all students among the teachers, parents, and students’ ratings of social skills and problem behavior domains. Study 1 revealed that self-identified bullies are not a homogeneous group. The main findings from Study 2 showed parents and teachers may add to the overall predictive validity of the student self-report assessment, but not the accuracy of classifying the students as bullies. Study 2 showed differences and similarities exist across the ratings provided by each rater. The relative value of including adult reports in the self-assessment likely lies in the reported differences from each rater, as they provide a more complete social behavior profile for each student. These findings are discussed in terms of existing research and theories regarding children and youths’ bullying behavior. Limitations and recommendations for future research conclude the report.

Although researchers often conceptualize shyness as stable across different situations (e.g., Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009), evidence has suggested that shyness may consist of situation-specific components (e.g., Asendorpf, 1990a; 1990b; Gazelle & Faldowski, 2014; Xu & Farver, 2009). This study was aimed at developing a systematic measurement tool for situational shyness in adolescence, as well as examining the relations between situational shyness and other popular measures of shyness and between situational shyness and adjustment. A sample of Chinese adolescents (N = 492) from an urban school participated in the study during 7th (T1) and 8th (T2) grades. Adolescents self-reported their situational shyness using a new measure of hypothetical scenarios, as well as their general shyness, anxious shyness, regulated shyness, depressive symptoms, and loneliness. Peers reported adolescents’ general and conflicted shyness, and popularity and peer rejection. The school provided records of their academic achievement (exam scores).

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the situational shyness measure consistently supported that shyness in the hypothetical scenarios can be separated into three components: shyness with familiar peers, shyness with unfamiliar peers, and shyness in formal situations. These components had differential associations with other measures of shyness. Self-reported general and anxious shyness were related consistently to shyness with unfamiliar peers and in formal situations, and occasionally to shyness with familiar peers. Self-reported regulated shyness was not related to self-reported shyness in any situation. Peer-reported conflicted shyness was associated with shyness with familiar and unfamiliar peers, whereas peer-reported general shyness was associated with shyness with unfamiliar peers and in formal situations. Moreover, situational shyness showed differential relations to maladjustment. Shyness with familiar peers was associated positively with maladjustment in multiple domains, especially academic and peer difficulties. Shyness with unfamiliar peers and shyness in formal situations, in contrast, were associated primarily with internalizing problems. In addition, shyness with unfamiliar peers and in formal situations occasionally related to positive adjustment, suggesting shyness in specific situations may still be protective in contemporary urban China. The findings provided new evidence that the correlates of shyness depend on the situation in which shyness occurs, and may inform future intervention programs.

Early academic adjustment has been found to be predictive of later academic success. This study sought to determine how child emotionality at school, specifically positive and negative emotions, as well as the quality of the school, might affect child's academic achievement. Further, the possibility that emotionality and school quality interact was tested. Two hundred and twenty eight second grade children's expressions of positive and negative emotions were observed in the school setting. Teachers also submitted questionnaires on the children's positive emotionality. Academic adjustment was measured by standardized tests and teacher reports. School quality scores were based on multiple indicators obtained from online public information data. Regression analyses and multi-level modeling (when necessary) were used to predict academic performance from children's emotions, school quality, and their interaction. Results demonstrated that school quality was at least marginally positively related to all aspects of children's academic competence. Further, teacher-reported positive emotion positively predicted all scores of academic competence, and teacher-reported dispositional positive emotion positively predicted Woodcock Johnson III applied problems subtest scores. Further, interaction effects showed that teacher-reported positive emotion and school quality significantly predicted teacher-reported academic competence and Woodcock Johnson III applied problems subtest scores. Using both statistical strategies (MLM & regressions), observer-reported positive emotion and school quality marginally significantly predicted Woodcock Jonson III applied problems subtest scores. The results indicate that children's emotional behaviors at school, as well as school quality, play a role in the development of children's academic achievement.

This longitudinal study examines the relations of anger, gender, and intrusive maternal parenting to empathy in toddlers. Participants (247 toddlers at the initial assessment) were assessed in a laboratory at approximately 18 (T1, N = 247), 30 (T2, N = 216), and 42 (T3, N = 192) months of age. Toddlers' observed anger was measured during a toy removal task and maternal intrusiveness was observed during free play between mother and toddler. Reported empathy was measured using questionnaires completed by mothers and fathers. At 18 months, a positive relation between observed anger and reported empathy was found for boys, but not for girls. At 30 months, maternal intrusiveness positively predicted empathy in boys, but it negatively predicted empathy in girls. These findings provide insight about sex differences in the development of empathy and concern for others in early childhood.